Advanced Integer Factorization Using the Quadratic Sieve Algorithm

Articles · 2026 · Ioannis (John) Konstas

Executive Summary

This document covers the design and implementation of an efficient integer factorization tool using the Quadratic Sieve (QS) algorithm. The implementation — quadratic_sieve_factorizer.py — leverages probabilistic primality testing (Miller-Rabin), smooth-number relation collection using a factor base, and Gaussian elimination over GF(2) to find congruences of squares that reveal non-trivial factors.

Introduction

Integer factorization is the foundation of RSA security. The difficulty of factoring large composite integers is what makes public-key cryptography viable. Efficient factoring algorithms are used both for testing the robustness of cryptographic systems and for attacking weakly generated keys.

The Quadratic Sieve is one of the most effective general-purpose factoring algorithms for numbers up to ~100 digits. It works by finding a set of congruences that can be combined to reveal factors of the target integer N.

Key Components

1. Miller-Rabin Probabilistic Primality Test

Used to build the factor base and to short-circuit factorization if N itself is prime.

def miller_rabin(n, k=5):
    if n <= 1: return False
    if n <= 3: return True
    if n % 2 == 0: return False

    s, d = 0, n - 1
    while d % 2 == 0:
        s, d = s + 1, d // 2

    def is_composite(a):
        x = pow(a, d, n)
        if x == 1 or x == n - 1:
            return False
        for _ in range(s - 1):
            x = pow(x, 2, n)
            if x == n - 1:
                return False
        return True

    for _ in range(k):
        a = random.randint(2, n - 2)
        if is_composite(a):
            return False
    return True

2. Relation Collection

For values x slightly above √N, compute y² = x² mod N and attempt to factor y² completely over the factor base. Values that factor completely are called B-smooth and form valid relations.

start = math.isqrt(self.n) + 1
for x in range(start, start + search_window):
    y_sq = (x * x) % self.n
    factors = self._factorize_over_base(y_sq)
    if factors:
        relations.append((x, factors))

Why search near √N? Because x² - N is smallest there, making it more likely to be smooth over the factor base.

3. Matrix Operations over GF(2)

Each relation is encoded as a binary row vector of prime exponents mod 2. Gaussian elimination over GF(2) finds a linear dependency — a subset of rows that XOR to the zero vector. This dependency identifies a subset of relations whose combined prime exponents are all even, forming a perfect square.

The Congruence of Squares

The goal is to find integers X and Y such that:

X² ≡ Y²  (mod N)

This implies N divides X² − Y² = (X − Y)(X + Y). Unless the solution is trivial (X ≡ ±Y mod N), the GCD gcd(X − Y, N) yields a non-trivial factor.

The algorithm achieves this by: 1. Collecting smooth numbers whose exponent vectors span GF(2)ᵐ 2. Using Gaussian elimination to find a dependency (subset with all-even combined exponents) 3. Computing X as the product of the x-values and Y as the square root of the combined factorization

Test Execution

n = 8051
factorizer = AdvancedFactorizer(n, factor_base_limit=100)
result = factorizer.factorize()
# Output: Factor found: 97  |  Other factor: 83  |  97 × 83 = 8051 ✓

Run from the command line:

python3 quadratic_sieve_factorizer.py --n 8051
python3 quadratic_sieve_factorizer.py --n 8051 --limit 200

Performance Analysis

Strengths

Known Limitations

Complexity

Conclusion

The Quadratic Sieve is an excellent educational and practical tool for integers up to ~100 bits. It demonstrates how linear algebra over a finite field can solve a hard arithmetic problem. For numbers above that threshold — such as 2048-bit RSA keys — the General Number Field Sieve (GNFS) is required. See factoring_algorithms_reference.md for a full comparison of the factoring cascade.

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Research and direction by Ioannis (John) Konstas; compiled and finalized with AI assistance.